Mark Edward • Bible

The Last Book: Second Peter

Wed, 01 Oct 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

There are some small puzzles in the Bible that I have been curious about for a decade or two. These are miniscule curiosities that, while odd enough to catch my attention, I had no serious expectation of finding an explanation.

One example is that of the trifecta of Peter, John, and James. In the synoptic gospel tradition, these three men are given the privilege of witnessing unique moments in Jesus’ career. In Paul’s letter to the Galatians we also find Peter, John, and James as the senior leaders of the early Jesus Movement. However, these two attestations to such a trio of men are not identical. In the synoptic tradition, James is the brother of John; these two sons of Zebedee are each counted among the twelve disciples. In Galatians, James is the brother of Jesus, and was evidently not one of the twelve. In the New Testament, the only text to depict both John’s brother James and Jesus’ brother James as active within the Jesus Movement is the Book of Acts, which introduces Jesus’ brother to the reader only after John’s brother had died. This prevents the two men from being confused, and may indicate the author also noticed this little oddity—the importance of James as part of a trifecta of disciples in the synoptics, and the primacy of James as part of a trifecta of leaders in Paul’s letter, but these two men are not the same James—and intended to explain it by omitting any reference to Jesus’ brother until after John’s brother had left the narrative.

Josephus’ Account of Jesus

Thu, 01 Feb 2024 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

Joseph son of Matthiah—more commonly known by his Hellenized name Josephus—was a descendant of the Hasmoneans, a family of Judean priests which also ruled Jerusalem as its princes and kings for a short time. Josephus was highly educated and well-traveled, such that, when revolt broke out in Iudaea Province against Roman authority in 66 CE, he was placed in charge of the military in Galilee. Through happenstance and ingenuity (and, perhaps, some duplicity), Josephus avoided death in the war, instead being captured by the Romans. He ingratiated himself with his captors by acting as their negotiator with the revolutionaries defending Jerusalem.

The Death of Jesus

Wed, 01 Feb 2023 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

For nearly two thousand years, the concept which stands at the center of Christian thought has been that the death of Jesus is the means by which the creator of the universe rescues humans from the problem of evil. Over this time, theologians have offered a variety of theories for how, exactly, this is accomplished. While many of them fixate on the letters of Paul to define their arguments for a proper salvation theology, the actual narrative for Jesus’ death is found elsewhere.

The Legends of the Judges

Sat, 01 Oct 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

The descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob have grown into twelve tribes consisting of millions of people. They escaped slavery in Egypt, wandered in the wilderness for a generation, and eventually conquered the land of Canaan to live in. The Book of Judges, as situated in the Hebrew Bible, continues the narrative of the Torah and the Book of Joshua. Having settled in the land, the Israelites now face foreign threats to their livelihood.

The Gods of Israel

Mon, 01 Aug 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

Chapter three of Habakkuk is widely regarded as one of the ‘most difficult’ passages in the Hebrew Bible to translate,1 due to its ‘poor condition’.2 It contains a large number of ‘apparently insurmountable’3 textual corruptions,4 some of them ‘impossibly corrupt’,5 with a ‘severe lack of agreement’ in places on how they should be corrected or translated.6 In some places the text is verbally coherent, but conceptually meaningless. These difficulties require scholars to consult early translations of Habakkuk—such as Greek, Syriac, and Latin—to attempt puzzling out what the original Hebrew text may have said. Even aside from this, Hab 3 stands out in the Hebrew Bible for a few reasons. It is unusual for being a hymn set within poetic prophecy; usually such hymns are located within a narrative. It also contains several textual markers used in the Psalms.7

The Infancy Story in Luke

Sat, 01 Jan 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

The first two chapters of the Gospel of Matthew tell the story of the birth and infancy of Jesus. The story did not originate with the author of Matthew, but the author’s source borrowed heavily from known legends concerning the birth of Moses, among other things. The account is almost entirely an invention of Jesus’ followers, probably after the mid-first century. The infancy narrative in Matthew tells us more about early ‘Christian’ beliefs regarding Jesus than it tells us about Jesus himself.

The Divine Agent of God

Mon, 01 Nov 2021 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

One tenet of Christian theology that has been carefully defined over many centuries is the identity of Jesus as God. The historically orthodox teaching of Christianity is highly specific, and its biblical foundation is taken for granted in a confessional context. The case is different for critical scholarship. The topic has been approached from a number of directions for more than a century. Did Jesus think he was God? Did the authors of the gospels think he was? Did Paul? Does the Revelation portray him as God? Does the Old Testament?

Destroy This Temple

Wed, 01 Sep 2021 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

The earliest known gospel is Mark. The gospel was subsequently expanded and redacted by Matthew and Luke. A hypothetical source used by both Matthew and Luke is named Q. Aside from these three gospels and Q, we have other gospels named for John, Thomas, Peter, and fragments of lost gospels.

In every one of these gospels, Jesus clashes with the religious elite of Israel, identified by the authors as members of the Pharisee and Sadducee parties, as well as members of the scribal and priestly classes. His sharp criticisms of their perceived sins and hypocrisies occasionally turn to declarations of end-times doom. This theme is so prevalent in Mark that it fills several chapters. Once Jesus arrives in Jerusalem for the Passover festival, his criticism of the city, its leadership, and its temple is brought up repeatedly. In the center of these chapters is a section called the ‘Olivet Discourse’ or ‘Little Apocalypse’ (somewhat inaccurately1), the longest section of Mark dedicated to a single topic,2 which begins with a prediction that the temple will be destroyed.

The Golden Calves

Tue, 01 Jun 2021 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

The Prince of Egypt cuts to the end credits as Moses triumphantly descends Mount Sinai with the tablets of God’s law. If the film had continued, the very next scene would have been Moses discovering Israel worshiping a golden idol of a young bull, created by Moses’ own brother Aaron. Moses cracks the stone tablets on the ground in anger, having just defended Israel to God. He seizes the idol, grinds it into a fine powder, and forces the idolators to drink the powder mixed in water. Moses then instructs the Levite tribe to kill anyone who failed to repudiate the idol.

Original Sin

Thu, 01 Apr 2021 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

The concept of ‘original sin’ is pervasive in Western Christianity. The historical teaching is this: When Adam sinned in the garden of Eden, his act corrupted humanity’s very nature so that all of his descendants suffer an innate desire to disobey God. Further, Adam’s guilt was not his alone. All humans inherit not only his ‘sin nature’, but the guilt for Adam’s sin as well; every human is born — even conceived — already guilty of sin.

The Failed Messiah Zerubbabel

Mon, 01 Feb 2021 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

After Persia conquered Babylon in 538 BCE, King Cyrus II soon released the Judeans from their captivity, allowing them to return to their ancestral homeland and begin the process of rebuilding their society under his rule. Sometime in the decade or two after this, a large group of repatriates traveled to Judah, and among them was a man named Zerubbabel. Ezra and Nehemiah briefly describe how Zerubbabel, appointed as governor over the returning community, led the efforts alongside the high priest Jeshua to build a new temple for Yhwh in Jerusalem.

The Infancy Story in Matthew

Tue, 01 Dec 2020 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

The chronological problems in the two stories of Jesus’ infancy in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke are well-known to scholars.

Matthew

Luke

Jesus born before the death of Herod I in 4 BCE

Jesus born during or after the census of the newly-annexed Iudaea Province in 6 CE

Joseph and Mary live in Bethlehem

Joseph and Mary live in Nazareth, but travel to Bethlehem because of the census

The Suffering Servant

Thu, 01 Oct 2020 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

In the time after the New Testament texts were written, Christians have attached a variety of passages from the Hebrew Bible to Jesus. He realizes this prediction or embodies that psalm. One of the traditions that is found in the New Testament itself is that Jesus fulfilled Isaiah’s prophecy of the ‘suffering servant’, a figure described four times in Isa 40–55. For example:

Isaiah 53

1 Peter 2

Surely he has borne our infirmities and carried our diseases; yet we accounted him stricken, struck down by God, and afflicted. […] All we like sheep have gone astray; we have all turned to our own way, and Yhwh has laid on him the iniquity of us all. […] although he had done no violence, and there was no deceit in his mouth.

The Demise of Babylon

Wed, 01 Apr 2020 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

The Book of Isaiah is typically divided by scholars into three sections: Proto-Isaiah or First Isaiah consists of chapters 1–39, Deutero-Isaiah or Second Isaiah is chapters 40–55, and Trito-Isaiah or Third Isaiah is chapters 56–66. Proto-Isaiah is attributed to the actual Isaiah, who lived in the eighth century BCE. Deutero-Isaiah and Trito-Isaiah each come from authors in the late exilic and early post-exilic periods — just before, and sometime after, 538 BCE — respectively.

A Prophecy of Two Cities

Sun, 01 Sep 2019 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

It is commonly accepted Isaiah is comprised of at least four sections, written by different authors and appended to each other. Setting aside later redactions and interpolations, Isaiah 1–35 is the earliest section, called Proto-Isaiah or First Isaiah, the contents of which are attributed to the historical prophet Isaiah. Here are prophecies concerning the fate of the northern kingdom Israel and the southern kingdom Judah, along with prophecies condemning various neighboring countries.

The Transfiguration of Jesus

Mon, 01 Jul 2019 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

One of the most enigmatic stories in the Synoptic Gospels is the ‘transfiguration’ of Jesus, originally found in Mark 9, and expanded in Matt 17 and Luke 9. In this episode, Jesus leads three of his disciples up a mountain, where they witness Jesus suddenly transform.

Mark 9.2–8

Six days later, Jesus took with him Peter and James and John, and led them up a high mountain apart, by themselves. And he was transfigured before them, and his clothes became dazzling white, such as no one on earth could bleach them. And there appeared to them Elijah with Moses, who were talking with Jesus. Then Peter said to Jesus, ‘Rabbi, it is good for us to be here; let us make three tents, one for you, one for Moses, and one for Elijah.’ He did not know what to say, for they were terrified. Then a cloud overshadowed them, and from the cloud there came a voice, ‘This is my beloved son. Listen to him!’ Suddenly when they looked around, they saw no one with them anymore, but only Jesus.

The Fabled King Melchizedek

Wed, 01 May 2019 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

While researching Saul’s family, I was reminded of David’s procession of the ark of the covenant into Jerusalem, a story found in 2 Sam 6. On the initial attempt, a priest tries prevent the ark from falling when the oxen carrying it stumble. Yhwh immediately kills the priest for touching the ark, and David leaves it in a small village for three months. Eventually overcoming his fear, David takes up the procession again.

The Family of King Saul

Fri, 01 Mar 2019 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

Saul’s story begins with him searching for his father’s missing donkeys. He finds the prophet Samuel, who anoints him to be Israel’s first king. Samuel later publicly declares Saul king, and Saul begins to lead Israel in fighting against their enemies. Chapter 15 shows Saul disobey an order from Samuel, sparing the life of the Amalekite king Agag. Samuel curses Saul, telling him that Yhwh will replace him with a new king. Saul begs forgiveness, but doesn’t receive it. The part which puzzled me was that, near the end of chapter 14, in the middle of the story of Saul’s military exploits, there is a brief detour. For just three verses we are suddenly told the identities of Saul’s family members.

Six Hundred Sixty Six

Sat, 01 Apr 2017 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

Every decade or so, end-times hysteria grips American evangelicals. Justified or not, a new scapegoat is found and said to be ‘the beast’ of the Revelation of John. Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin, Bill Gates, George W. Bush, Saddam Hussein, Barack Obama, and the World Wide Web have been contenders in the past.

Revelation of John 13.18

And the number is six hundred sixty-six.

Readers invent an interpretive system that enables them to make the connection they ‘always knew’ was right. No one seeking to identify a present or future villain with ‘the beast’ will ever succeed, because the Revelation’s author expected his original readers to be able to do it.

The Deaths of Goliath

Fri, 01 Jul 2016 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

Years after David became king, stories were told of his elite soldiers. The feats some of them performed, the daring combats they won, were captured in the bible. Second Samuel 21 tells of how different Israelite champions slayed Philistine giants. Many readers are unaware of this section, and even those who get here tend to skim. However, buried in 2 Samuel is a small, but hugely important statement.

2 Samuel 21.19

Then there was another battle with the Philistines at Gob; and Elhanan son of Jaare-oregim, the Bethlehemite, killed Goliath of Gath. The shaft of his spear was like a weaver’s beam.

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Focusing on Genesis (rather than the Torah as a whole), we find several anachronistic elements in the book. The book’s traditional origin is that it was written in the late fifteenth century BCE, coming from the hand of Moses during Israel’s journey through the wilderness toward Canaan following the exodus from Egypt. While many of the folklore elements found in the book must predate the time of its creation, their cumulative weight points toward Genesis having been written and edited in the seventh, sixth, and possibly fifth centuries BCE.

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction

The early followers of Jesus were deeply apocalyptic, but not just in the technical sense of ‘apocalypse’ meaning ‘revelation’. The ancient literary genre of the apocalypse was dominated by predictions about the end of the world. This community, diverse as it was, believed that God’s plan for the end of the world had been revealed to them. Through Jesus’ teachings, and especially through his resurrection, they knew the end was near.

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

4 Maccabees 17.7–10, 17–22

If it were possible for us to paint the history of your religion as an artist might, would not those who first beheld it have shuddered as they saw the mother of the seven children enduring their varied tortures to death for the sake of religion? Indeed it would be proper to inscribe on their tomb these words as a reminder to the people of our nation: ‘Here lie buried an aged priest and an aged woman and seven sons, because of the violence of the tyrant who wished to destroy the way of life of the Hebrews. They vindicated their nation, looking to God and enduring torture even to death.’